by 
Note: This is a homework of CET 401 course. This is second part.
Investigating the Impact of Attention Span on Turkish 6th-7th Grade Student's Attitudes
Towards Mobile Device Usage for Educational Purposes in Classroom Settings:
A Causal-Comparative Study
by
Group 10
Aleyna Çorbacı
Ali Eren Kayhan
Ayşe Deniz Üğütgen
Ece Yalçın
Metin Hakan Çoban
Our research topic focuses on examining the attitudes of Turkish 6th and 7th-grade students towards the use of mobile devices for educational purposes, based on their attention span scores. In this context, the “Mobil Öğrenmeye Yönelik Hazırbulunuşluk Ölçeği” developed by Gökçearsla, Solmaz and Kukul (2017) can be considered a suitable tool for measuring students' readiness for mobile learning, supported by validity and reliability studies. Even though the Cronbach's alpha value for the "Öğrencilerin Derslerde Teknoloji Ürünü Kullanımına Yönelik Tutumu" test is acceptable range,since there are missing question in the measurement scale the accessibility issues emerge."İlköğretim Matematik Derslerinde Mobil Öğrenmenin Kullanımına İlişkin Öğrenci Tutumları Ölçeği" has a great values calculated for validity and reliability measurement. Yet, the test consists of 61 questions, creating possible difficulties for conducting the test on length and time aspects."İngilizce Mobil Öğrenme Tutum Ölçeği” has an acceptable Cronbach's alpha value. However, the language level and the familiarity of the terms used in the test are not suitable for our sample group. "Mobil Öğrenmeye Yönelik Tutum Ölçeği" has acceptable results for validity and reliability measurement calculations. Yet, we were not able to access every question in the instrument, meaning the test was inaccessible by us. In summary, the “Mobil Öğrenmeye Yönelik Hazırbulunuşluk Ölçeği” emerges as the most suitable instrument for our research, balancing validity, reliability, ease of use, and sensitivity considerations in the context of our proposed research’s sample population.
Data Collection Procedures And Intervention
To ensure the generalization of our findings over the population we are planning to incorporate participants from backgrounds with an average student in Türkiye, yet the background and the educational achievement of the student will be kept as similar as possible as it is to prevent the third variable that may be the cause behind our results.
Firstly we will administer the “d2 Dikkat testi” to every student to be able to form our control and experimental group based on our grouping variable, that is the attention span of the students. In other words, our aim in this step is to group students based on their attention span.
Once we have our control and experiment groups,students will engage in a weekly instructional session lasting one hour, in which they are able to use their mobile devices like tablet pc’s and laptops. This intervention is scheduled for a duration of 3 months, that is equivalent to one academic semester. Later, we will conduct the “Mobil Öğrenmeye Yönelik Hazırbulunuşluk Ölçeği” to both of the groups to see how use of mobile devices are related with the attention span of the students.
Data Analysis
Individual scores will be determined using the provided formula from "Mobil Öğrenmeye Yönelik Hazırbulunuşluk Ölçeği". Scores will be obtained by adding the points obtained from the likert scale. The “Mobil Öğrenmeye Yönelik Hazırbulunuşluk Ölçeği” uses a 7-point Likert scale. Scores will be graded as 1 "strongly disagree" and 7 "strongly agree". Subsequently, a comparison will be made between the control and experimental group. Meaning, the attitude scores of those with higher attention span will be compared to those with lower attention span. The variances will be computed. In order to ensure the robustness of the analysis, any outlier values will be excluded based on both the interquartile range and standard deviation. The subsequent dataset will then be utilized to calculate the mean, median, and standard deviation.
To be able to generalize our findings to the population and reject the null hypothesis, we have to make sure that the differences between groups are significant. For testing whether our findings are significant enough to reject the null hypothesis we plan to use “independent samples t-test”. It has been decided that the “independent samples t-test” is the optimal tool since our groups are independent from each other and our aim is to decide whether the difference of means of our dependent variable is significant enough.
References
Aagaard, J. (2015). Drawn to distraction: A qualitative study of off-task use of educational technology. Computers & Education, 87, 90–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2015.03.010
Al-Furaih, S. A. A., & Al-Awidi, H. M. (2021). Fear of missing out (FoMO) among undergraduate students in relation to attention distraction and learning disengagement in lectures. Education and Information Technologies, 26(2), 2355-2373. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10361-7
Banire, B., Al Thani, D., Qaraqe, M., Mansoor, B., & Makki, M. (2021). Impact of mainstream classroom setting on attention of children with autism spectrum disorder: An eye-tracking study. Universal Access in the Information Society, 20, 785-795. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10209-020-00749-0
Bilge, Y., Bilge, Y., & Sezgin, E. (2022). Turkish adaptation of the smartphone distraction scale (SDS). Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşimlar, 14(Ek 1), 251-260. https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.1169932
Erdogan, Y. (2009). Paper‐based and computer‐based concept mappings: The effects on computer achievement, computer anxiety and computer attitude. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(5), 821-836. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2008.00856.x
Evans, C. (2008). The effectiveness of m-learning in the form of podcast revision lectures in higher education. Computers & education, 50(2), 491-498. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360131507001182
Forrin, N. D., Huynh, A. C., Smith, A. C., Cyr, E. N., McLean, D. B., Siklos-Whillans, J., ... & MacLeod, C. M. (2021). Attention spreads between students in a learning environment. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 27(2), 276. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000341
Fried, C. B. (2008). In-class laptop use and its effects on student learning. Computers & Education, 50(3), 906–914. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2006.09.006
Gökçearslan, Ş. A. H. İ. N., Solmaz, E. B. R. U., & Kukul, V. (2017). Mobil öğrenmeye yönelik hazirbulunuşluk ölçeği: bir uyarlama çalişmasi. Eğitim Teknolojisi Kuram ve Uygulama, 7(1), 143-157.
Janchenko, G., Rodi, A., & Donohue, M. J. (2018). Impact of computers in the classroom environment—A distraction or an essential tool. Issues in Information Systems, 19(4), 10-15. https://doi.org/10.48009/4_iis_2018_10-15
Kula, E. (2018). Dikkat becerisi geliştirmeye dayalı programın dikkat eksikliği olan ilkokul öğrencileri üzerindeki etkisinin incelenmesi (Doctoral dissertation, Necmettin Erbakan University (Turkey)).
Limniou, M. (2021). The Effect of Digital Device Usage on Student Academic Performance: A Case Study. Education Sciences, 11(3), 121. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11030121
Mahsud, M., Khalaf, A. J. M., Mahsud, Z., Afzal, A., & Afzal, F. (2021). Addiction to smartphones leading to distraction in the classrooms: Effect of different cultures. Journal of Statistics & Management Systems, 24(4), 741-754. https://doi.org/10.1080/09720510.2020.1834660
Rourke, B., Bellur, S., & Nowak, K. (2023). All distractions are not equal: The moderating role of autistic traits and technology multitasking on academic performance among college students. Atlantic Journal of Communication, ahead-of-print(ahead-of-print), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1080/15456870.2023.2177292
Talan, T. (2020). The effect of mobile learning on learning performance: A meta-analysis study. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 20(1), 79-103. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1241462.pdf
Tanil, C. T., & Yong, M. H. (2020). Mobile phones: The effect of its presence on learning and memory. PloS one, 15(8), e0219233. https://doi. org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219233
Vahedi, Z., Zannella, L., & Want, S. C. (2019). Students’ use of information and communication technologies in the classroom: Uses, restriction, and integration. Active Learning in Higher Education, 22(3), 215–228. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1469787419861926?utm_source=summon&utm_medium=discovery-provider
Yang, C. C., Hwang, G. J., Hung, C. M., & Tseng, S. S. (2013). An evaluation of the learning effectiveness of concept map-based science book reading via mobile devices. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 16(3), 167-178. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/jeductechsoci.16.3.167.pdf
Appendix A
Article #1
Bibliography in the APA Style: Aagaard, J. (2015). Drawn to distraction: A qualitative study of off-task use of educational technology. Computers & Education, 87, 90–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2015.03.010
Summary:
In today's educational systems, there is a significant emphasis on incorporating digital devices into classrooms to enhance students' engagement and success. However, it has become evident that many students misuse this approach by getting involved in distracting "off-task" activities and multitasking during the learning process. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the impact of technology on students' attention spans. This study aims to describe students' experiences when using educational technology while being "off task." It takes a different approach from traditional cognitive psychology by focusing on how students interact with technology in education, considering how our bodies interact with devices like tablets or computers.
The sample for this study consists of young men and women, aged 16-20, who are students at a large business college, which embraces the model BYOD (Bring Your Own Device), in Denmark. The researcher agreed with six teachers, from different branches, to observe the experience with technology in their lessons. After six months of observation 15 minutes of interviews are made with 14 volunteer students.
Results
The study's observations and interviews revealed that students extensively use digital technology in their learning environment. These technologies have replaced traditional tools like books, pencils, and calculators, allowing students to complete various tasks such as homework, accessing course materials, preparing presentations, and seeking information instantly through laptops or tablets. However, this increased use of technology has also led to a rise in "off-task" activities, as reported by the interviewed students. Many students admitted to engaging in distracting activities like watching YouTube videos, checking social media, or playing online games during classes. Some students acknowledged their awareness of these distractions and made efforts to resist them. It was found that students were more likely to engage in off-task technology use when they found the material too challenging or too easy, or when theoretical teaching hours were excessively long.
What can be done?
Teachers struggle with students getting distracted during class because there are always entertaining options available on their laptops and mobile devices. In order to prevent this educators should not simply ban digital devices from the classroom, as it is impractical and unwise. Instead, they should focus on deliberate shaping of students' interactions with technology to foster a more responsible and balanced relationship.
Why and how is this article related to your topic?
This article is relevant to our topic because it explores the impact of educational technology on students' attention spans, a key aspect of our investigation into Turkish 6th-7th-grade students' attitudes toward mobile device usage for educational purposes. The study investigates how students interact with technology and the prevalence of "off-task" activities, aligning with our interest in understanding the relationship between attention span scores and attitudes toward mobile devices. The research, focusing on students aged 16-20 and their experiences with the BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) model, provides insights into a similar age group, contributing to the contextual understanding of attitudes toward educational technology. The findings regarding students' challenges in resisting distractions during classes and the proposed solutions for shaping responsible technology use resonate with our aim to identify factors influencing attitudes and potential strategies for optimizing mobile device integration in Turkish classrooms.
Article #2
Bibliography in the APA Style: Al-Furaih, S. A. A., & Al-Awidi, H. M. (2021). Fear of missing out (FoMO) among undergraduate students in relation to attention distraction and learning disengagement in lectures. Education and Information Technologies, 26(2), 2355-2373. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10361-7
Summary:
The study aimed to investigate the negative effects of FoMO, fear of missing out the, on attention and learning in smartphone use undergraduate student during class. First of all, it indicated that there are some positive effects of using smartphones during class if there will be rule. For example, it provides students extra information on Internet. Nevertheless, there are some negative effects particularly in terms of addiction. There are several addiction like web browsing, playing computer games and so on. These addictions caused distractions not only for students but also teachers. Teachers try to prevent using smartphones during class but rules are not work very well due to FoMO. There is a positive association between FoMO and social media intensity but a negative association with social connections. Due to FoMO, students try to make multitasking. They try to listen to teachers and surfing or texting on their phone and this leads to heavy cognitive load and they can't learn. The study use 3 different test, level of FoMo, impact of FoMO and identifying any differences between students studying humanities and science subjects. The study used a self-reported survey as a quantitative approach to collect data and validate the method. It contained 25 questions,open-ended questions and 2084 participants from 16 colleges at Kuwaşt University. In conclusion, they found that FoMO has negatively influence attention and learning during class.
Why and how is this article related to your topic?
As instructional technologies and gamification in education became more and more popular, teachers use some tools like Kahoot and while using these tools, students can be distracted due to some text or notifications on their phone during the game. This leads to attention span and the article shows us that although using smartphones during the class as a learning tool has positive effects, it has also negative effects on attention and learning process due to FoMO.
Article #3
Bibliography in the APA Style: Banire, B., Al Thani, D., Qaraqe, M., Mansoor, B., & Makki, M. (2021). Impact of mainstream classroom setting on attention of children with autism spectrum disorder: An eye-tracking study. Universal Access in the Information Society, 20, 785-795. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10209-020-00749-0
Summary:
This article is about experimental research that aims to investigate the “attentional behavior” of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in “virtually simulated classroom”. ASD is a “characterized by deficits in social communication and repetitive patterns of behavior (p.785)” by American Psychology Association. Children with ASD often struggle with maintaining their attention when “externally imposed stimuli” exists. Therefore, for their meaningful learning developments well-designed carefully thought learning environments are essential. Another work showed that the most critical factor on ASD children’s academic success is attention. Therefore, research that that investigates a static classroom scenario across every participant can be useful to find answer to “how to support the academic success of children with ASD”. This research aims to create such environment by using neuropsychological test and VR tools. Once the constant classroom environment is established eye-tracking tools that tracks gaze-position and pupil diameter will be for assessing the attentional behaviors. This study uses two measures to investigate the classroom distractions’ effects on attentional behavior of children with ASD. Eye-tracking measures and performance scores, obtained during the experiment, will be the data sources. 45 children in total participated in experiment. 20 of them with ASD and 25 of them are" typically developing (TP)”. 17 of ASD group was boys and 3 of them were girl, while the TD group was formed by 17 boys and 8 girls. ASD group participants have an age range from 7 to 11 and diagnosed with mild or moderate ASD. TD group were chosen from a group of children who have not been diagnosed with any developmental disability. Experiment consisted of 3 categories of classroom settings: (1)mainstream, (2)special schools, (3)home. The procedure was designed like this: all participants were given a manual that explains the details of experiment. Teacher will explain the purpose of the experiment and this process will also serve as an opportunity for participant to settle in. A 5 minute main attention test will be conducted. Based on their performance students will get points on their “performance test”. As meanwhile, the eye-tracking devices will collect the data. 14 “areas of interest (AOI)” were created by the researchers and data was analyzes accordingly. 5 different metric is used to analyze data from eye-tracking devices. Results showed that the both of the groups take a look at the “externally imposed object-the board”. But the time of the stare was minimum at the ASD students compared to TD students. The ASD group focused on the board less than the TD group because they were distracted by the other objects in the classroom. As the performance task scores, students who have been introduced to a computer previously, that are 11 of the 20, have get scores higher than 30, in which the 40 being the highest score. 6 of these 11 students are attending a mainstream school and 4 of them are being home-schooled. 7 of the ASD group get below-average score. 2 of them participants were not able to sit still during the experiment. The rest 5 were able to answer the questions but not able to use the mouse to answer them. 2 of the ASD group, who are students in mainstream schools, were able to get average scores. The variety in these results could be the type of education the student gets and whether they have used a computer before. It is possible to say that both of the groups act according to the instructions, since both of their first glace was at the board, the “stimuli to sustain attention is differs”. Since, the time spent on the board is less and other AOI is higher than the TD group. Overall, this study indicated that children with ASD struggles with the distractors in traditional classroom atmospheres and focusing on the relevant stimuli.
Why and how is this article related to your topic?
The research includes a novel experiment design. Eye-tracking devices and their use in classroom settings are the methods that we also discussed whether to add to our research design. Additionally, we also plan to work a classroom distractor and to observe students’ reactions with eye-tracking devices. Therefore, the components of this experiment is closely related to our topic. Moreover, we also plan to work on distractive elements in classroom settings. Reviewing similar researches in similar settings and similar aims is beneficial for our work.
Article #4
Bibliography in the APA Style: Bilge, Y., Bilge, Y., & Sezgin, E. (2022). Turkish adaptation of the smartphone distraction scale (SDS). Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşimlar, 14(Ek 1), 251-260. https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.1169932
Summary:
The study investigated smartphone distraction scale to Turkish and its psychometric properties. A total of 399 participants, consisting of 288 women and 111 men, with ages ranging from 18 to 60, were included in the research. Various assessment tools were employed, including the Sociodemographic Form (SF), Smartphone Distraction Scale-Turkish Version (SDS), Bergen Social Media Scale (BSMS), Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ), Current Symptoms Scale (CSS), and Perceived Multitasking Scale (PMS). The development of the SDS was rooted in the Attention Networks Model. The scale was developed based on the Attention Networks Model.The development of the SDS was grounded in the Attention Networks Model. Various statistical methods were employed to analyze the data, including Cronbach's alpha coefficient for assessing internal consistency, Pearson product-moment correlation test, examination of item-level correlations with the total score, and confirmatory factor analysis to evaluate the scale's construct validity.The data underwent an evaluation using a range of statistical techniques, which encompassed the examination of internal consistency via Cronbach's alpha coefficient, the Pearson product-moment correlation test, assessments of correlations between individual items and the overall score, and the utilization of confirmatory factor analysis to gauge the construct validity of the scale. To sum up, this research contributes a thorough examination of the Smartphone Distraction Scale-Turkish Version, which supply valuable insights into its psychometric properties. It underscores the scale's aptness for evaluating smartphone-related distractions among the Turkish population. This study offers a robust foundation for understanding the dynamics of smartphone usage and its impact on individuals within the Turkish context.
Why and how is this article related to your topic?
Through these scales, it aims to understand whether mobile devices affect students' attention and which factors are associated with distraction and we can use these data collection instruments in our study. The psychometrically validated SDS-Turkish Version provides a robust foundation for collecting data on smartphone-related distractions among Turkish students, enhancing the overall relevance and applicability of your research.
Article #5
Bibliography in the APA Style: Erdogan, Y. (2009). Paper‐based and computer‐based concept mappings: The effects on computer achievement, computer anxiety and computer attitude. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(5), 821-836. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2008.00856.x
Summary:
The central aim of this study was to explore how the implementation of “concept mapping” as an instructional strategy impacts the “computer achievement, computer anxieties, and computer attitudes” of students. In particular, the research aimed to discern the differential effects between two variations of concept mapping techniques, one using traditional paper-based technique and the other using computer-based approaches, in comparison to the conventional pedagogical methods typically employed in computer courses. The research encompassed a cohort of 77 eighth-grade students hailing from Ciragan College situated in Istanbul. Among these participants, 33.7% were of the female gender, while the remaining 66.3% were male. The decision to select Ciragan College as the study site was based on the faculty and administration's strong desire to participate in cooperative research projects, their desire to add to the body of scientific knowledge, and their readily accessible of the required technological infrastructure. The student participants were stratified into three distinct groups: a control group, an experimental group receiving instruction through the conventional pedagogical approach, and an experimental group exposed to teaching through the utilization of concept mapping separated also into two subgroups, with one group employing “paper-based concept mapping” and the other utilizing “computer-based concept mapping”. Three distinct data collection instruments were employed to evaluate students' engagement with computer-related phenomena. First, the "computer hardware achievement test", which includes 36 multiple choice questions and assesses students' depth of knowledge of computer hardware components, was developed. Secondly, the "computer anxiety scale", which is a psychometric instrument including “3-point Likert scale developed by Ceyhan and Namlu (2000)”, used to quantify students' anxiety and uneasiness regarding the use of computer technologies. Lastly, the "computer attitudes scale", which is a 42-item questionnaire employing a 5-point rating scale to measure students' multifaceted attitudes toward computer technologies, is used. In other words, effects of learning strategies are independent variables in this study, whereas the “computer anxiety”, and “computer attitudes” are the dependent variables. The study found that “computer-based and “paper-based concept mapping” had equivalent effects on “computer achievement”, indicating the adaptability and efficacy of both methods. While computer-based concept mapping yielded a marginal improvement in students’ computer attitudes, there were no statistically significant differences in “computer anxiety” and attitudes among the three groups. The study suggested that students may prefer the flexibility of computer-based concept mapping over the challenges associated with the paper-based counterpart. This study concludes that concept mapping is a valuable learning strategy in computer education since both mappings significantly improved students' “computer hardware achievement”, surpassing the conventional teaching approach. Still, it should be underscored that the relatively brief duration of instructions may have influenced these outcomes.
Why and how is this article related to your topic?
The research under discussion, which evaluates the effects of “concept mapping”, whether “paper-based” or “computer-based”, on students' “computer hardware proficiency”, “computer anxiety”, and “computer attitudes”, investigates the efficacy of a particular pedagogical approach. It seeks to gauge how concept mapping can ameliorate students' learning outcomes and their perceptions of technology. This investigation yields invaluable insights into pedagogical strategies that have the potential to augment students' comprehension and attitudes towards technology, particularly in the realm of computer-related subjects.
Article #6
Bibliography in the APA Style: Evans, C. (2008). The effectiveness of m-learning in the form of podcast revision lectures in higher education. Computers & education, 50(2), 491-498. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360131507001182
Summary:
This research investigation sought to evaluate the efficacy of incorporating “podcasts as a pedagogical instrument for revision” within an educational context. The principal aims of this inquiry encompassed the evaluation of podcasts' influence on the educational process, focusing on aspects such as efficiency, effectiveness, learner receptivity, and the establishment of a meaningful rapport between the educator and the student. Involving 196 participants who were first-year undergraduates enrolled in a Business and Management program at a university in London, UK, individuals were selected from a larger cohort of 401 students, with ages ranging from 18 to 25. The rationale for selecting this specific sample was to capture a diverse group of students, some of whom were anticipated to specialize in Business Computing while the majority pursued other fields of study. The study embraced an “action research” methodology, affording students an active role in the investigative process. It entailed a sequential dissemination of three podcast episodes throughout the revision period, with eligibility for access to the third episode contingent upon the fulfillment of an online survey. Data collection instruments encompassed “Likert-scale questions” to quantify participants' responses, open-ended questions aimed at soliciting qualitative insights, and demographic interrogations designed to assemble pertinent participant attributes. The principal findings of the research revealed that 20% of the students preferred to access podcasts on iPods (14%) or other MP3 players (6%), while the remaining 80% preferred using a PC and a web page for listening the podcasts. Descriptive statistics were employed, with a focus on “non-parametric methods”, and the mode was used as a measure of central tendency rather than the mean. Notably, the majority of respondents expressed agreement with the statement "I think it is important to be able to listen to podcasts where and when I want," (p. 495) with 54% agreeing and an additional 25% strongly agreeing. Similar modes were observed for other statements. To assess the significance of these preferences, a “one-tailed Wilcoxon signed rank test” was employed. The results indicate a noteworthy inclination among students for the expeditiousness of revising from podcasts as opposed to traditional notes. Moreover, a considerable majority of students perceived podcasts to be more effective in aiding their learning when compared to textbooks. Additionally, a significant preference was observed among students for the receptiveness of podcast-delivered content, surpassing that of both textbooks and conventional revision lectures. However, no statistical disparities were observed regarding the effectiveness of podcasts in comparison to revising from notes or the ability to connect with the lecturer during podcast consumption compared to traditional in-person lectures. Lastly, it is important to note that the study identified that podcast did not necessarily promote multitasking, since “most people claiming that they did not undertake any other activities whilst listening to podcasts” (p. 495).
Why and how is this article related to your topic?
Although the very study offers valuable insights into the domain of mobile learning within the higher education context, it explores the integration of podcasts as a pedagogical instrument, providing a lens through which to examine the broader implications of mobile device incorporation in educational settings. Notably, the article's examination of students' preferences for accessing educational content through various mobile devices underscores the importance of understanding technological inclinations among students, a facet highly relevant to the overarching research theme of mobile device integration and its impact on attention in Turkish K12 classrooms. Furthermore, the article's findings concerning the perceived effectiveness and receptiveness of podcasts for learning suggest potential connections to the research topic, as students' engagement with mobile learning tools may bear relevance to their attention levels and overall learning outcomes.
Article #7
Bibliography in the APA Style: Forrin, N. D., Huynh, A. C., Smith, A. C., Cyr, E. N., McLean, D. B., Siklos-Whillans, J., ... & MacLeod, C. M. (2021). Attention spreads between students in a learning environment. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 27(2), 276. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000341
Summary:
A new phenomenon is introduced “attention contagion”. Meaning, the attentiveness or the inattentiveness in a group is being spread around the members of such group. This phenomenon created based on 3 theories: (1) social appraisal theory, (2) goal contagion theory and (3) cognitive load theory. Social appraisal theory suggests that “people take into others’ appraisals when evaluating events”. Meaning the feelings and reactions around us play a role determining our reaction the events happening around us. Therefore, one’s attention can also be influenced by the others around them. Goal contagion theory linked with the social appraisal theory, “attentional system prioritizes goal-relevant information”. Meaning, is one has relevant educational goals, they acts and behave according to such goal. In educational settings,, if one observes others with “goal-directed” actions, they might make out the underlying reason behind such actions. Additionally, connecting two mentioned theories, if one observes such goal-oriented actions, such goals, even in different context, might also be triggered and causing them to behave accordingly. In educational setting, it is possible to say attentively. Cognitive load theory mentions, “people have limited attentional resources”. Meaning every other irrelevant material is “extraneous cognitive load”. Observing others, acting inattentively, or less goal-oriented might cause additional cognitive load, i.e., extraneous load. Considering these three theories, this study introduces a new phenomenon “attention contagion” and aims to observe its effects over the memory. The experimental study conducted in 2 experiments, changes of confederates, who were trained to display attentive or inattentive behavior, changes. Total of 171 students take place in the research, 119 of them female, 45 of them are male and 3 non-binary participants formed the group. 80 of total were in “attentive-confederate condition” and 85 were in “ inattentive confederate condition”. Experiments take place in a laboratory room that is design as a classroom and has 2x2 seating plan. Each participant was randomly seated, and confederate was seating in front of them, diagonally across from the participants. Confederates either act attentively or inattentive as according to their training. Participants were instructed to watch a lecture video titled “Civic Life Interrupted: Nightmare and Destiny on August 24, A.D. 79” from Yale Open courses. The video divided to 16 pieces, varies in length, and after every piece with a “thought probe” about their attentive situation. The. Results obtained from the first experiment stated that the inattentive or attentive behavior of the confederate did, in fact, spread around the classroom. Participants who attend classrooms with attentive confederate have reported to take more notes related to lecture, displayed more attentive behavior, and have spent more time “being on task”. It also stated that the attention-contagion has impacts on memory. Student in classrooms with attentive confederate had better memory for the lecture content and performed better on the exams. The same structure also set for the second experiment; the difference was the confederates in this setting was not visible to the participants. The confederates were seated behind the participants and the same experimental structure was conducted. Results indicated that, even though dyads (confederates) were not visible, the attentive behavior was observable. Auditory cues informed others about the dyads’ attentive behavior. Attentive and memory result were similar to the first experiment. Overall, both of the experiments created result that are supporting the attention-contagion theory.
Why and how is this article related to your topic?
This article investigates a possible cause of distraction in classroom settings and presents a new concept of contagious attention. This concept is taken in to consideration and research with the presence of mobile devices. This two concepts of mobile device usage in classroom settings and how might these devices effect students attention is closely related to our topic. Since, our purpose is also aiming to find the distractive elements in classroom setting. This article provides a resource to know about how to conduct an experiment in similar settings and aims, and also how to alter those settings to test for another supporting hypothesis. Additionally, it gives us some several important insights about a new concept that is closely relevant to our research topic.
Article #8
Bibliography in the APA Style: Fried, C. B. (2008). In-class laptop use and its effects on student learning. Computers & Education, 50(3), 906–914. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2006.09.006
Summary:
The study examined the impact of in-class laptop usage on student learning in a large lecture course. It found that students who used laptops in class often engaged in multitasking, which proved distracting to both the laptop users and their peers. This research suggests that the widespread use of laptops in the classroom may hinder rather than enhance learning.
The use of laptops in classes can boost student motivation, their ability to apply course-based knowledge, and overall academic achievements. Surveys show that students generally report higher participation rates, increased interest in learning, and greater motivation to excel in laptop classrooms compared to non-laptop classrooms.
Drawing on established research in cognitive science, it is reasonable to predict that laptop use, particularly with Wi-Fi access, may interfere with learning. Human attention and information processing capacity are selective and limited, and cognitive overload can result from excessive information sources and attentional shifts caused by incoming information. Laptops, with their vertical orientation, pop-up messages, instant messages, and other distractions, contribute to cognitive overload and distraction. Moreover, external events and visual stimulation can lead to involuntary shifts of attention. Recent research on cognitive interference has shown that new information, such as pop-up messages, appearing while individuals are engaged in a primary task, slows performance and increases errors. Laptops, due to their vertical orientation, can pose greater distractions to fellow students compared to traditional notebooks.
The sample for this study consisted of 137 students enrolled in two sections of General Psychology, all of whom completed the course, including 83 freshmen, 41 sophomores, 9 juniors, and 4 seniors.
The study examined a traditional lecture-based psychology course where laptops were not formally integrated. Data was collected through weekly surveys, which explored laptop use, distractions, and perceptions of learning, while also considering students' academic preparation.
Results
The main focus of the study was to investigate the relationship between laptop use and student learning. Linear regression analysis was employed to explore this relationship. A ratio of laptop use was calculated for each student based on their attendance and laptop use reports. Factors such as ACT scores, high school rank (HSR), and class attendance were positively correlated with student learning. To isolate the relationship between laptop use and learning while controlling for these factors, ACT scores, HSR, and self-reported attendance were included in the regression equation as predictor variables. The analysis revealed a significant and negative relationship between the level of laptop use and student learning (β = −.179, p = .024). In essence, as students used their laptops more in class, their overall class performance suffered.
There was a negative correlation found between students' reported attention to lectures and their level of laptop use. Additionally, there were negative correlations discovered between students' perceptions of lecture clarity and their comprehension of the course material and their use of laptops.
Why and how is this article related to your topic?
The article is relevant to my topic because it investigates the detrimental consequences of employing laptops during in-class sessions, highlighting issues related to distraction and cognitive overload. This exploration holds particular pertinence to the envisaged study, which aims to scrutinize how the use of mobile devices might unfavorably influence students' attention and academic achievement within the context of Turkish middle schools.
Article #9
Bibliography in the APA Style: Janchenko, G., Rodi, A., & Donohue, M. J. (2018). Impact of computers in the classroom environment—A distraction or an essential tool. Issues in Information Systems, 19(4), 10-15. https://doi.org/10.48009/4_iis_2018_10-15
Summary:
Computers have been used in K12 settings and higher education for a while. However, integration of technological devices in classroom settings causes students to face to problems about their attention. Laptops and mobiles phones in classroom settings, due to their attractiveness, might damage the students’ focus to the lectures. This study aims to review the existing knowledge about the use and integration of such devices in classroom and how their existence effect students’ educational goals and outcomes. This study do not include an experiment of itself, it consist of existing information reviews and using such knowledge to make conclusions. Previous knowledge about laptop use in classrooms, how of using laptops as a note-taking tool versus “long-hand note taking” effects students’ performance and how might use of laptops might cause students to detach from lectures were investigated and have been investigated. The study results states that, overall, laptops and mobile phones are distracting in school settings, the reason students use laptops and mobile phone is that they get bored in classrooms if they do not engage actively to the lectures. Lectures that students take passive role create a disengagement from the class, causing boredom. When using laptops as a mean to note-taking, they tend to write everything they hear rather than focusing on the main points and listen the lecture carefully, preventing student to benefit from the notetaking. Additionally, the use and misuse of laptops not only distracts the laptop users, but also the others in classroom. The urge for student-centered lessons plans are also found during this research.
Why and how is this article related to your topic?
This study contains a large range of information about technological devices used in the classroom and their impacts over the students’ achievement. Even though it does not include a research design and, therefore, its findings, it is a great work of information and knowledge collection. This article is relevant and beneficial because it allows us to obtain a general knowledge about the existing information. It is a rich repository of knowledge that offers a holistic view about the subject matter. Allowing and guiding us to understand and investigate the presence of technological devices in classroom settings.
Article #10
Bibliography in the APA Style: Limniou, M. (2021). The Effect of Digital Device Usage on Student Academic Performance: A Case Study. Education Sciences, 11(3), 121. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11030121
Summary:
The purpose of the study is to explore students’ behaviors when they bring their own digital devices into the learning environment. This study was conducted by the psychology department at the University of Liverpool, recommending a BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) policy to their students and combining online and face-to-face instructional activities by integrating digital learning tools into the teaching delivery process. The study was conducted on 361 undergraduate psychology students who utilized technology in the learning process. Participants followed a curriculum throughout their academic journey. They attended mandatory modules in the first two years and then selected specialized modules in their final year. A questionnaire-based approach was used to collect data, including information on device usage, learning activities, distractions, and student learning characteristics.
Results
Device usage and academic achievement:
A significant difference observed between the academic performance of first-year and third-year students used laptops and smartphones in the classroom as learning tools. First-year student academic performance was significantly lower in this scenario compared to third-year student academic performance.
Device Types and Number of Applications:
There is a negative relationship between the number of applications used and academic performance. The choice of applications and how they are used play a crucial role in a student's learning process.
These findings provide a clear understanding of how device usage, application use, and behavior affect student academic performance. The impact of smartphones, peer behavior, and teaching methods on distractions was highlighted, suggesting the necessity of methods to reduce distractions in the classroom.
Why and how is this article related to your topic?
This article is relevant to our topic because it investigates students' behaviors when using their own digital devices in the learning environment, particularly focusing on the integration of digital learning tools. The study recommends a Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) policy, aligning with our research on Turkish 6th-7th graders' attitudes toward mobile device usage for educational purposes. The emphasis on understanding device usage, application use, and their impact on academic performance resonates with our interest in the effects of attention span scores on students' attitudes. The observed difference in academic performance between first-year and third-year students using laptops and smartphones provides insights into potential developmental aspects that may influence attitudes toward educational device usage.
Article #11
Bibliography in the APA Style: Mahsud, M., Khalaf, A. J. M., Mahsud, Z., Afzal, A., & Afzal, F. (2021). Addiction to smartphones leading to distraction in the classrooms: Effect of different cultures. Journal of Statistics & Management Systems, 24(4), 741-754. https://doi.org/10.1080/09720510.2020.1834660
Summary:
This study sought to investigate the influence of smartphone usage in the classroom on anxiety and focus levels, taking into consideration the cultural background of participants (Asian, European, or African), and it employed two distinct experiments, one with smartphones present and another without smartphones. The research findings revealed noteworthy distinctions, particularly highlighting that Asian students exhibited superior focus levels compared to their European counterparts when smartphones were absent in the classroom. Furthermore, the study unveiled a gender disparity in smartphone addiction, with males showing a higher inclination towards smartphone dependency in comparison to females. The study's participant pool consisted of 607 international postgraduate students enrolled at Beihang University, reflecting a diverse cultural background. To gauge smartphone addiction, the research employed a 21-question Nomophobia (no-mobile-phobia) test. This test aimed to assess the extent of individuals' dependency on their smartphones and the resultant anxiety when separated from their devices. The implications of these findings are substantial. They underscore the significance of considering cultural factors in educational settings, particularly when it comes to technology usage in classrooms. The differences observed between Asian and European students emphasize the need for tailored strategies and support mechanisms to enhance focus and mitigate anxiety during lectures. Additionally, recognizing the gender-specific variations in smartphone addiction is crucial for implementing targeted interventions aimed at reducing excessive smartphone usage, especially among male students.In conclusion, this study provides valuable insights into the impact of smartphones on students' anxiety and focus levels in a classroom setting, highlighting the significance of culture and gender in understanding and addressing the dynamics of smartphone use among international postgraduate students.
Why and how is this article related to your topic?
A study on whether phone addiction varies across cultures (Asian, European, or African) depending on distraction in the classroom, and the research we will conduct on students in Türkiye will support whether there is a cultural difference in distraction, especially on Nomophobia. Also it indicates the effect of smartphones on students' anxiety and focus levels in a classroom setting cross gender and culture.
Article #12
Bibliography in the APA Style: Rourke, B., Bellur, S., & Nowak, K. (2023). All distractions are not equal: The moderating role of autistic traits and technology multitasking on academic performance among college students. Atlantic Journal of Communication, ahead-of-print(ahead-of-print), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1080/15456870.2023.2177292
Summary:
The study investigated that continuously using smartphone has negative effects on neurotypical people like reducing learning. The research involved 179 undergraduate students, consisting of 108 female and 70 male participants, with the categories of female represented as 1 and male as 2. The study was conducted in the United States and relied on self-reported surveys as well as the Autism-spectrum Quotient (AQ) as assessment tools. These surveys also assessed participants' multitasking habits.The surveys also measured multitasking. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) were employed to gauge the reliability of the data. Homogeneity of item content (face validity), internal consistency, measured with coefficient alpha, and parallelism (external consistency) were criteria to test item quality. The study's results are students have lower GPA when they do multitasking even if they are not in class. The study's findings revealed that students tend to achieve lower GPAs when they engage in multitasking, even when they are not in a classroom setting. These findings are consistent with the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, which posits that multitasking, involving the concurrent processing of multiple streams of information, can overload cognitive capacity and hinder the achievement of desired learning outcomes. In summary, this research offers valuable insights into the adverse consequences of continuous smartphone use and multitasking on the academic performance of neurotypical individuals. The findings underscore the significance of minimizing multitasking to enhance learning outcomes, emphasizing the importance of focused, undistracted study and information processing. The study's implications extend to a broader awareness of the need for mindful technology usage to optimize educational achievements in today's digital age.
Why and how is this article related to your topic?
It can be related to our study in a way that it mentioned that multitasking has a negative effects and we are investigated that mobile devices effects during class because using mobile device during class is also multitasking. Students are trying to listen and do something on their phone at the same time. Also, the study investigated that continuously using smartphone has negative effects on neurotypical people like reducing learning.
Article #13
Bibliography in the APA Style: Talan, T. (2020). The effect of mobile learning on learning performance: A meta-analysis study. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 20(1), 79-103. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1241462.pdf
Summary:
To create instructional materials and learning settings that are effective, it is essential to comprehend both the advantages and disadvantages of mobile learning. In exploring the theoretical underpinnings of mobile learning and emphasizing the significance of linking mobile learning with contemporary educational approaches like “activity, connectivity, navigation, and location-based learning”, the article emphasizes the need for thorough research to interpret the effectiveness of mobile learning on various educational outcomes, particularly learning performance. The study embodies participants from different levels of education, from primary school to university education level, including secondary and high school education level, since the participants in the studies examined by the researcher included these very levels. The meta-analysis method is utilized for a comprehensive assessment in the impacts of mobile learning on student performance by combining results from previous studies, which is planned to provide a holistic perspective for the research itself. The literature review for the combination of the studies was also carried out through variety of databases via keyword searching. To compare the features of these studies—such as education level, study year, publication type, course/subject, implementation duration, and sample size—a coding form was made, in order to figure out the bearing of mobile learning on learning outcomes in general, which may have an indirect bearing on attention as well. While the data examined within the context of meta-analysis has predominantly been derived from studies conducted at the university level, in the form of articles, and within the domain of language education, analyses have also been conducted on studies that have exhibited an increasing trend after 2013, with a focus over a 1-2 month period. As a result, although it has been discovered that mobile learning generally exerts a positive and significant impact on learning and positively influences students' performance, there are also studies that indicate no significant increase or divergence in student performance when mobile learning is compared to other methods. These studies' contradictory results could be due to a variety of factors, such as variations in the kinds and quality of mobile devices used during implementation, variations in tasks conducted during the lessons, potential disparities in the quality of mobile devices, as well as differences in how the teacher plans and manages the process. Therefore, it can be argued that courses to be integrated with mobile learning should be meticulously planned.
Why and how is this article related to your topic?
This study is relating to our topic since it provides insights about students’ learning performance, although it didn’t focus on the attention parameter directly. Still, it can be said that improved learning performance resulting from the mobile learning may imply one’s increased course engagement and attention levels. In addition, the diverse range of participants in this study makes it relevant to our topic as it also involves studies with students in K-12 classrooms.
Article #14
Bibliography in the APA Style: Tanil, C. T., & Yong, M. H. (2020). Mobile phones: The effect of its presence on learning and memory. PloS one, 15(8), e0219233. https://doi. org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219233
Summary:
This study aims to investigate the outcomes of smartphone existence on “learning and memory among undergraduate students”. Even the “3 second distraction” in cognitively challenging task is enough to disrupt the process. Considering this the presence of mobile phones in classroom settings could have potential to have impacts over the learning. Experimental research done before stated that the students who use their mobile devices during lectures had decreased academic performance and they were taking fewer notes compared to those who do not use their mobile devices. The former studies also show that mobile phone use can be addictive and separation from mobile phones might have negative effects on students’ emotional states. Therefore, on the educational successes and their memory. Considering these, research that investigates the mobile phone use on short-term memory and memory-recall accuracy have been designed. Total of 119 undergraduate students take place on this research. 61 of them were females and 58 of them were males. The experimental study was a mixed design depend on presence on smartphones. 2 categories were formed, low-phone salience (LS) and high-phone salience (HS). The independent variable was the presence of phone the independent variable was the “recall accuracy from the memory test”. During the experiment participants were given a “working memory test”. PANAS tests were used to analyze the mood states of participant and 33 question self-report scale (SAS: smartphone addiction scale) was used to investigate the participants smartphone addiction status. The results stated that the existence of mobile devices and mobile phone addiction have create remarkable impacts over the “memory recall accuracy”, as they increase the cognitive load, the learning process is being interrupted. The hypothesis about the higher PA and lower NA would result in decreased “memory recall accuracy” was not supported.
Why and how is this article related to your topic?
The study investigates attention and memory by considering the distractions’ impacts over them. We are also interested in investigating the distractions’ effects over the students’ academic achievement and their attitudes. Attention and memory is closely and highly linked to success in education and, therefore, it is an area that we also need to study. We need to be informed about how distractions affect memory and achievement since these can be considered as core elements on forming attitudes towards a concept. We aim to understand the students' attitudes based on their attention spans. Therefore, to be informed about the factors that play major roles and have impacts on forming attitudes is utterly critical.
Article #15
Bibliography in the APA Style: Vahedi, Z., Zannella, L., & Want, S. C. (2019). Students’ use of information and communication technologies in the classroom: Uses, restriction, and integration. Active Learning in Higher Education, 22(3), 215–228. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1469787419861926?utm_source=summon&utm_medium=discovery-provider
Summary:
The use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) by students to engage in non-academic activities during lectures in the classroom has attracted a lot of attention. According to the researches, undergraduate students used ICTs spend almost half of their class time on things other than academics.The high level of personal ICT use during class hours have negative consequences on learning, such as shorter attention spans, lower grades, and worse test scores. The primary objective of this study is to explore underlying motivations for students engagement in non-academic ICT activities within the classroom. Boredom emerges as a key factor motivating non-academic ICT use, and this study will consider whether to restrict or integrate ICTs in the classroom.
Several experiments have been conducted to understand better the impact of banning ICTs in the classroom. For example, a study by Elliot-Dorans examined the effects of banning laptops in class and found that students in laptop-banned sections exhibited lower attendance and success rates compared to those allowed to use their laptops.Another study by Hutcheon et al. in 2019 found that students in technology-banned classes reported lower levels of engagement during lectures. In conclusion, these studies display that banning the use of ICT in class is not the best solution, may have detrimental effect on students’ learning.
In order to determine the possible integration and restriction of ICT, more detailed study is carried out. In this study three crucial point are focused on: (1) Students’ current ICT usage and its impact on learning (2) Student supports for ICT policies in the classroom (3) Student experiences with integrated ICT use and its effects on learning. The data collection instrument for this study was a survey administered through Qualtrics (2017) survey software. The study included participants who were students enrolled in introductory psychology courses at Ryerson University during the Fall of 2017. After having their consent, participants were asked to respond to a series of questions related to their classroom ICT usage.
Results
Majority of the participants brought laptops (85.4%) and smartphones (81.5%) to the class, and only 1% of them reported that they do not bring any ICTs to the learning environment. The main purposes of using ICTs are note taking and accessing course materials. Additionally, a significant number of participants (n = 141) report negative impacts on their own learning due to other students' ICT use, primarily attributed to distractions caused by non-academic activities on laptops.
According to the results the majority (58.2%) reported that they are not favor of any restrictive policy which will limit the use of ICT in educational setting, and only only 2.1% of the students support the ban of bringing any technological device to the classroom.
The minority of the participants (11.2%) reported encountering integrated ICT activities, with the majority (96.8%) perceiving such integration as beneficial due to increased attention, heightened engagement, and improved comprehension of course material.
Conclusion:
Restrictive policies related to ICT use in classroom might have damaging to students’ academic performance, and recommends that educators concentrate on effective ICT integration to increase student engagement rather than enforcing bans or restrictions.
Why and how is this article related to your topic?
This article is relevant to our topic because it directly addresses the impact of students' ICT use during lectures, aligning with our research on Turkish 6th-7th graders' attention span and attitudes toward educational mobile device use. The study's findings on the negative consequences of personal ICT use, such as shorter attention spans and lower grades, provide a basis for understanding potential correlations in our context. Additionally, the exploration of students' attitudes toward ICT policies, favoring integration over restrictions, offers insights into how Turkish students might perceive the use of mobile devices for educational purposes.
Article #16
Bibliography in the APA Style: Yang, C. C., Hwang, G. J., Hung, C. M., & Tseng, S. S. (2013). An evaluation of the learning effectiveness of concept map-based science book reading via mobile devices. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 16(3), 167-178. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/jeductechsoci.16.3.167.pdf
Summary:
The research underscored the significance of printed books as a medium for knowledge acquisition although there are challenges associated with learning from them, notably the absence of educational aids. Despite the rise in advancement of technology and computers, many learners exhibit a preference for printed books instead of digital books. Still, the deficiency of educational assistance remains a prominent concern when it comes to printed books, and this is where the opportunity arises to support reading activities with additional digitized materials. The research featured three participant groups, which are 92 sixth graders from an elementary school in Taiwan, named as experimental group 1, experimental group 2, and a control group. Group 1 had access to concept maps and supplementary learning materials on smartphones while engaging with printed books. Group 2, on the other hand, accessed supplementary learning materials via smartphones but did not utilize concept maps, while the control group adhered to the conventional practice of reading printed books with teacher guidance. This investigation utilized a quasi-experimental approach, incorporating a pre-test and post-test design which are used in assessing the learning achievements, a cognitive load questionnaire, and a technology acceptance model questionnaire to assess students' adaptation and use of the mobile technology. The research findings revealed that the concept map-oriented ubiquitous learning method substantially enhanced learning achievements compared to the traditional and the conventional ubiquitous learning approach since the post-test results of experimental group 1 were superior to those of experimental group 2 and the control group. Additionally, the study indicated that students demonstrated a high level of acceptance of the mobile technology-assisted learning system, showing positive perceptions regarding the ease of use, utility, and their tendency toward future usage.
Why and how is this article related to your topic?
While the article's context is not mainly focusing on the attention of the students, it provides insights into the potential benefits of mobile technology in enhancing learning outcomes, which may have implications for our topic's broader discussion of mobile device integration and its effects on students' attention. We could use this article to highlight the potential advantages and challenges of mobile device integration in educational settings and discuss how it might impact students' attention incorporating with learning outcomes.
Appendix B
Figure 1- d2 Dikkat Testi
Figure 2 - Mobil Öğrenmeye Hazırbulunuşluk Testi
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